CADERNOS DE DARWIN EDITADOS POR GAVIN DE BEER.
Tomar cuidado, pois é bastante antigo.
Nb B
·
anunciado no journal em 1837
·
A
primeira fagulha de interesse pelo assunto parece datar de 1835, ver barlow
·
Julho,
seis meses após o retorno, perda da estabilidade das espécies. 9 meses antes de
Malthus, logo é importante pra ver oq já estava lá. Francis menciona isso
também
·
Nbs
contém nomes e refs
·
Darwin
não propunha ter inventado a mudança das espécies, mas sim um mecanismo que a
explique.
·
Em
1837 a mudança das espécies era tida segundo duas propostas: que os organismos
podem ser modificados de maneira adaptativa segundo o ambiente e que sua prole
seria parecida não apenas funcionalmente mas também em caracteres adquiridos ou
seja transmissão hereditária de modificações induzidas ambientalmente. Ambos
são problemáticos hoje em dia.
·
A
herança de caracteres adquiridos é uma falácia que dificultava a ideia de
darwins segundo Beer. O sistema quinário (relação com cinco reinos?), classificação
circular por afinidade dos grupos, de MacLeay também.
·
Erasmus Darwin era um
transmutacionista mais especulativo vitalista e suportava a Her car adq. Mas
suportava mais a vontade dos seres (donda e Martins 2016)
o
In
his work, an astonishing number of principles can be found which echo later
developments in Darwin's hands. Adaptation, protective colouration, the
struggle for existence, artificial selection, sexual selection, vestigial
organs, the importance of cross-fertilization, the significance of monsters as
proof against preformation in primordial germs, and the occurrence of mutations
such as polydactylous cats and rumpless fowls, are all touched on. But when
Erasmus Darwin ascribed the production of adaptation to "the power of
acquiring new parts, attended with new propensities, directed by irritations,
sensations, volitions, and associations; and thus possessing the faculties of
continuing to improve by its own inherent activity, and of delivering down
those improvements to its posterity, world without end"3 a "power
working from within", and "internal impulse", or a "living
force," it is easy to see why such a hard-headed scientist as Darwin
should have been "much disappointed, the proportion of speculation being
so large to the facts given" in the work of his grandfather. 30
·
Lamarck
é discutido em detalhes. Embora fosse mais sistemático o mecanismo de
explicação da teoria também era substituído por especulações vitalistas. Lyell
se refere a evolução no sentido que a temos hoje em seu principles de 1832, v2
parte 2 ou pg II.
o
Lamarck5 believed in the mutability of species
because of the difficulty of distinguishing between species and varieties,6 and
having with a stroke of genius substituted for the old static scale of beings a
dynamic branching tree,7 his was the first scientific formulation of the
"transformism" of species, although he only assumed it as axiomatic
and provided no evidence to support it. He was familiar with the fact of the
struggle for existence8 and the importance of adaptation; he realized the vast
amount of time required for evolution to have taken place, but appeared to
think that species had not suffered extinction but had instead become
transformed. 30
·
O
uniformitarismo de Lyell foi importante. Ele tinha as mesmas peças que Darwin,
mas não acreditava na evolução das espécies.
·
Algumas
Foreshadow citations no nb b de F. Cuvier com “fortuitous modifications” contra
o design; L. von Buch sobre colonização das ilhas, geração de espécies a partir
de variedades permanentes e o papel do isolamento geográfico para isso, ressoado
em Humboldt [Darwin retirou isso nas outras eds da origem? P. 35]; Et. St
Hilaire sobre causas finais e imediatas aparecendo no caderno, sketch, essay e
Origin; não esterilidade de cruzamento entre algumas espécies apontadas por W.
Herbert;
·
Paley,
Henslow foram influências menos diretas. E. Blyth: In other words, like
Lyell before him (see above), Blyth who believed in special creation used the
principle of natural selection to prove that species were immutable.
·
There are other cases in which Darwin simply
forgot to mention his informants. The most striking case of this was his
omission of the name of Wallace from the summary in the first edition of the
Origin of Species.2 In 1859 when writing3 to Lyell about the succession of
forms, Darwin forgot that he had himself published a paper on this subject in
1837. In 1860 when writing4 to Baden Powell he excused himself for not having
given a list of his predecessors who rejected special creation, saying that he
had attempted no history of the subject; yet later on the same day he
remembered that he had a year or two previously drafted a Historical Sketch for
his large work on evolution, in which Powell's name was mentioned with honour.
All subsequent editions of the Origin contained the Historical Sketch. 37
·
SUMMARY OF DARWIN'S CONCLUSIONS IN THE FIRST
NOTEBOOK ON TRANSMUTATION 39-37, ver seção inteira e comparar com F Darwin
5-10, Deb 1961, DeB 1967 e Barret et al 1987
·
The
chief subjects included in the extant portion of the Notebook
are:—reproduction, variation, constancy of variation, causes of variation,
heredity, prepotency in crosses, hybridization, breeding-barriers, isolation,
geographical distribution, centres of origin of species, conditions of life,
radiation, ecological niches, means of transport, taxonomy, instincts,
morphology, parasitology, palaeontology, geology, extinction, divergence. 39
·
Only
the briefest references are made to the struggle for existence, selection, and
adaptation. 39
·
The
chief subjects missing are artificial selection, domestic breeds, conditions of
domestication, inadequacy of climatic or other environmental conditions to
account for resemblance and differences between floras and faunas, principle of
gradations, sterility, imperfection of the geological record, affinities and
classification, embryonic resemblance, vestigial organs, inheritance of effects
of use and disuse. 39
·
Segundo de Beer (1960, p. 39) os
principais assuntos são reprodução, variação, assim como avaliações de sua constância
e causas, hereditariedade, cruzamentos e hibridização, isolamento, distribuição
geográfica, condições de vida, taxonomia, instintos, morfologia, parasitologia,
paleontologia, geologia, extinção e divergência. Enquanto os ausentes são
seleção artificial, raças domésticas, condições de domesticação,
questionamentos quanto ao clima ou outras peculiaridades ambientais como
explicação para as semelhanças e diferenças entre diferentes floras e faunas,
princípios de gradação, esterilidade, imperfeição do registro geológico,
afinidades e classificação, semelhanças embriológicas, órgãos vestigiais e
efeitos hereditários do uso e desuso. Luta pela vida, seleção e adaptação são
mencionados muito brevemente.
·
How far these may have been included in the
missing pages is hard to determine. The chief impression left after comparing
the First Notebook with the Sketch of 1842 is that the latter is imbued with a
dynamic background of necessitation which the extant portion of the former
lacks. It is here that the effect of reading Malthus's work in October 1838 may
most probably be discerned. The principle of selection of better adapted
variants is present in the First Notebook (p. 38), but it is presented
statically without indication of its universal compelling force. 39
·
Why this should be so, in spite of the fact that
the struggle for existence was well known to Darwin from the works of Erasmus
Darwin, Lamarck, and Lyell, was probably because Malthus was the first to state
the problem quantitatively, stressing the discrepancy between the arithrnetical
rate of increase of food supplies and the geometrical rate of potential
increase of organisms. It is in this light that the words should be read which
Darwin wrote1 in 1876: "In October 1838, that is, fifteen months after I
had begun my systematic inquiry, I happened to read for amusement "Malthus
on Population", and being well prepared to appreciate the struggle for
existence which every where goes on from long-continued observation of the
habits of animals and plants, it at once struck me that under these circumstances
variations would tend to be preserved, and unfavourable ones to be destroyed.
The result of this would be the formation of new species. Here then I had at
last got a theory by which to work". The clock had been provided with a
mainspring.
·
Árvore
ramificante já presente, mostrando que a divergência já era parte integrante. O
que gera um problema com a frase de Darwin sobre não ter entendido a
divergência na época escrita em 1876 e discutida por F Darwin erroneamente
segundo Beer.
o
In trying to explain this discrepancy, Sir
Francis Darwin3 was mistaken in thinking that descent with modification
necessarily implies divergence; evolution might take place along single lines
without any divergence at all. The explanation emerges from a close attention
to the Origin of Species [6th ed. World's Classics p. 112] where the problem is
stated more forcibly: "How, then, does the lesser difference between
varieties become augmented into the greater difference between species?"
The problem is not only that of branching or splitting a species into two but
of widening the split. 40
o
What Darwin was referring to in 1876 was not the
fact of divergence, for this was clearly stated in the First Notebook, but to a
causal explanation of how it occurs and increases. This is also clear from the
Origin [p. 113]:—"The more diversified the descendants from any one
species become in structure, constitution and habits, by so much will they be
better enabled to seize on many and widely diversified places in the polity of
nature." 40
·
Gênese
da teoria no txt na transcrição do caderno D 125-6
o
The first 54 pages of the First Notebook are
devoted to a straightforward exposition of the reasons which led Darwin to
abandon the view of the immutability of species and to accept the hypothesis of
transmutation or evolution. It is noteworthy that the three facts which started
Darwin on his train of thought do not figure in this exposition, and this is a
measure of the amount of consideration which Darwin had given to the problem
between the time when he was in the Beagle and July 1837 when he opened his
First Notebook on Transmutation of Species.
o
As the problem was one of differences between
species, the first step in the analysis was the question of the origin of
differences or variation. Here he found Erasmus Darwin's statement of empirical
fact that variation was the natural result of sexual reproduction. But if
variation occurs, deductive reasoning leads to the conclusion that species
ought not to remain constant. Why, then, do species remain as constant as they
do? Hypothesis: interbreeding within the whole population quashes variation of
the species away from the type. This was the nearest approach to empirical fact
that the then-prevailing total ignorance of the processes of genetics allowed
him to make. If interbreeding within the whole population quashes variation,
then what will happen if a portion of a population is prevented from
interbreeding with the remainder by geographical isolation? Hypothesis: the
portion of the population will vary, form a variety, and ultimately a new
species. If this be so, then by deduction it ought to be observable that in
some isolated regions this has happened. It is: the inhabitants of isolated
areas such as the Galapagos Islands, Falkland Islands, Ireland, etc. show forms
which are permanent varieties or different species as compared with the
inhabitants of neighbouring lands.
o
If species are formed in this way from
pre-existing species, there must be divergence in the lines of descent; but the
number of different species living together in one region cannot be unlimited:
therefore hypothesis: some species should die out. They have done so;
extinction is a fact. Now if species are related to one another by common
descent and some of them have gone extinct, hypothesis: there ought to be
differences between the magnitudes of difference between the different species.
There are: species are grouped in different ways, some close together belonging
to the same genus, others wide apart belonging to different genera.
o
In this manner by a sequence of observation of
empirical facts, induction into hypothesis, deduction, and exposure to test by
a search for new facts leading to refutation or confirmation of his hypothesis,
Darwin gradually acquired confidence. His hypothesis became "my
theory" and he foretold the results of its establishment: a common
ancestor for man and all animals, netted together by affinity (I 232).
o
In all this argument so far, there is no
explanation how species are caused to become modified, if they are. In the
First three Notebooks up to nearly the end of the Third, about 1st October
1838, Darwin was in the stage described in the Autobiography:1 "it was
equally evident that neither the action of the surrounding conditions, nor the
will of the organisms (especially in the case of plants) could account for the
innumerable cases in which organisms of every kind are beautifully adapted to
their habits of life, … and until these could be explained it seemed to me
almost useless to endeavour to prove by indirect evidence, that species have
been modified."
o
The idea of natural selection, so far as can be
seen from the extant portions of the Notebooks, seems to have occurred to
Darwin as a combination of the effects on him of the facts of variation, adaptation,
and extinction. Variation must result in some forms being slightly more and
others slightly less favoured. If this is so, hypothesis: "of those forms
slightly favoured getting the upper hand & forming species" (III 175).
o
Once he was in the possession of the key of
natural selection, Darwin worked by a combination of induction and deduction to
construct the full theory of evolution by natural selection, as Sir Julian
Huxley2 and I3 have shown. But this belongs to a stage in the development of
Darwin's thought later than is represented by the first three Notebooks on
Transmutation of Species, and is found in the Fourth Notebook, the Sketch of
1842, and the Essay of 1844
Nb c
·
IN
his First Notebook on Transmutation of Species,1 Darwin satisfied himself that
it had occurred when populations were isolated and no longer able to prevent
the variation that resulted from sexual reproduction and is normally kept in
check by-breeding throughout the population. In this way varieties become split
off from species and eventually become species themselves, while old species
become extinct, thereby increasing the separation between the surviving
species, many of which after being split into daughter species become genera.
This was what Darwin meant by "my theory", and it was already
distinctively his even before he thought of natural selection because nobody
before him had combined genetic variation, isolation, divergence, and
extinction into a coherent theory of transmutation of species. 77
·
Data
de Darwin fev-jul 1838. Metacomentários sobre apresentação da teoria. 77
o
In his Second Notebook, which represents
Darwin's train of thought from the beginning of February to the first half of
July 1838, he was already concerned with the problem of expressing his views on
paper and gave himself instructions for presenting his theory. He had even
thought out how he would start: "The only cause of similarity in
individuals we know of is relationship, children of one parent, races of
animals—argue opening thus" (II 219)2; "The argument [that two
varieties of old standing will not breed together] must thus be taken as in
wild state" (II 30). In the event he started very differently as the
Sketch of 1842 shows. Other instructions covered the different aspects of the argument:
"Give specimen of arrangement" of species in relation to geographical
distribution (II 45); Discrimination between species is empirical: "show
this by instances" (II 70); "Mention persecution of early
astronomers" (II 123); "Argue the case theoretically if animals did
change excessively slowly whether geologists would not find fossils such as
they are" (II 137); "Put note Sir W. Scott has written about"
recalling images long past (II 172); John Gould's conviction that half-breed of
Australian dog would be most like Australian "might be mentioned in
note" (II 189). An especially awkward problem was the origin of instincts:
"my theory must encounter all these difficulties" (II 199). Most
important, he felt, was the following warning which shows that he was already
alive to possible objections: "I fear great evil from vast opposition in
opinion on all subjects of classification, I must work out hypothesis &
compare it with results; if I acted otherwise my premises would be
disputed" (II 202). 77-8
·
Conclusões da teoria
o
Among the claims which he was already able to
make for "my theory" were the following: "My theory agrees with
unequal distances between species" (II 145); "My theory explains that
family likeness … holds good" (II 138); "My theory explains a grand
apparent anomaly in nature" i.e. the existence of mules (II 135);
"State broadly scarcely any novelty in my theory, only slight differences,
the opinion of many people in conversation. The whole object of the book is its
proof " (II 177). 78
·
Um
dos pilars era o principio de comunidade de descendência e suas consequencias
especialmente com relação a taxonomia (duas pops n poderiam ser consideradas
sps até seus domínios serem examinados, aquelas q se sobrepõem mas mantém suas
características podem ser consideradas sps) 78
·
Sps
e genera eram reais 78
o
For Darwin, species and genera had real
existence in Nature. "Genus must be a true cleft putting out of case the
analogy [of its species breeding with those of another genus]. If genus does
not mean this it means nothing. There should be some term used where there is
series" (II 129). This is Rensch's Artenkreis. As for the origin of
genera, "Genus only natural from death or slow propagation of forms—just
same way as men not all equally related to each other" (II 138); "The
death of some forms & succession of others…is absolutely necessary to
explain genus and species" (II 167). 78
·
Esterelidade
entre organismos era vital, exemplo dos gulls mas sem provas portanto
hipotético, ponto importante de ser comprovado para Huxley. 78
·
O
estágio intermediário de esterilidade poderia ser visto em híbridos estéreis
como a mula
·
Humanos
já plenamente integrados na teoria, inclusive com consequencias teológicas e
sociais. Seleção sexual aplicada ao homem e aos animais 78 79
·
Problema
com causas da variação
o
The prevailing total ignorance of the causes of
variation was a constant worry to Darwin. Always bearing adaptation in mind, he
could only conclude: "Till we know uses of organs clearly, we cannot guess
causes of change" (II 56). He was reduced to wrestling with William
Yarrell's view that the oldest variety has the greatest effect on offspring in
a cross (II 1), but was careful to remind himself to "give it" as
Yarrell's theory. Later, (II 121) he gave it up. The difference between sports
(or mutations) which were already recognized as inherited and minor variability
which was so important for transmutation by imperceptible steps led Darwin to
believe that there were "Two kinds of varieties. One approaching to nature
of monster, [is] hereditary, [the] other [is] adaptation" (II 4).
[uma mutação pode ser monstruosidade
num context e adaptação em outro, de beer chama isso de phenocopy... var e
adapt muito associadas entre si] 79
·
Distribuição
dos mamíferos é interessante para estudar centros de criação, migrações,
isolamento dos grupos em grande escala (marsupiais ex) e representative sps 80
·
Necessidade
de um mecanismo evo, ainda sem ns mas competividade primeiramente sem penalidade
c76 e depois com c153 79
·
Isolation is part of the mechanism: "Nature
conscious of the principle of incessant change in her offspring has invented
all kinds of plan to insure sterility, but isolate your species [and] her plans
are frustrated" (II 53). 79
Nb d
·
De
beer se empolga bastante aqui
·
Data
dada por darwin 15.07.1838-2.10.1838, logo n tem influencia de Malthus ainda
121. NS pensado independentemente D135 ("All this agrees well with
my view of those forms slightly favoured getting the upper hand and forming
species), reconhecido por Darwin 1856 121 [TUDO ERRADO DEPOIS QUE ACHOU AS PGS
PERDIDAS, HERBERT 1971, IDENFITICADA COMO ]
·
Duas
ideias que ele bolou indepentendmeente: paralelo entre variações domésticas e
naturais (aparece nesse caderno, D65); e que formas formas mais favorecidas
mesmo que pouco tem mais vantagem sobre as outras.
o
But it was an idea of natural selection without
stress on the heavy and unavoidable penalties for failure in the struggle for
existence, although the probability of extinction as the price to be paid for
insufficient adaptation was already recognized in the First Notebook (I 38). It
seems that it was the mathematical demonstration of the insufficiency of food
supplies if numbers increased too fast, and the consequent inevitableness of
the penalties, that Darwin derived from Malthus's work, not the principle of
selection itself which completely undermines the validity of Malthus's own
thesis that mankind was unimprovable.
121
o
The proof of the correctness of this
interpretation of the story is to be found in the letter1 which Darwin wrote to
Wallace on 6th April 1859, in which he explained that after reading Malthus's
book he "saw at once how to apply the principle of natural
selection". He had already grasped the principle of natural selection and
had seen how it could result in unlimited change away from the ancestral type
and the production of new species; but he had not recognized how nature
enforced it until he read Malthus. 122
·
Darwin
n clama originalidade qnt a transmutação mas sim qnt ao como ela ocorre 122
·
Metodologia
de Darwin. Só vale pena juntar fatos, especular e fazer leis para gerar
previsões c67 122
·
Sedgwick
criticava Darwin por não ser “indutivo” (bacon) o suficiente. Darwin se achava
muito indutivo. As hipóteses mancham o indutivismo puro mas são bem discutidas
filosoficamente por Beer. Darwin era cuidados com especulações ou hipóteses sem
embasamentos. Huxley n dava a mínima se n fosse indutivo já q dedução tbm vale.
Jevons: os dois e a criação de hipóteses andam juntos. Outros filósofos tbm são
citados 122-4
·
3
fatos conhecidos:
o
great fossil animals covered with armour like
that on the existing armadillos", "the manner in which closely allied
animals replace one another in proceeding southwards over the Continent",
"the South American character of most of the productions of the Galapagos
archipelago, and … the manner in which they differ slightly on each island of
the group" 124
·
Frase
importante no ornithological notes:
o
"When I recollect the fact, that from the
form of the body, shape of the scale and general size, the Spaniards can at
once pronounce from which Isd, any tortoise may have been brought:— when I see
these islands in sight of each other and possessed of but a scanty stock of
animals, tenanted by these birds but slightly differing in structure and
filling the same place in Nature, I must suspect they are only varieties. The
only fact of a similar kind of which I am aware is the constant asserted
difference between the wolf-like Fox of East and West Falkland Islands. If
there is the slightest foundation for these remarks, the Zoology of
Archipelagoes will be well worth examining; for such facts would undermine the
stability of species." 124-5
·
Fala
bastante sobre o caderno B e a trajetória da ideia, passei pras notas sobre o
caderno B 125-6
·
O
resto do caderno D procura fatos escassos para suportar a teoria, especialmente
com relação as leis de cruzamento.
·
Pontos
que beer achou interessante 127
o
All the more remarkable, therefore, are the
sound conclusions that he was sometimes able to draw:—Regeneration: "each
part of animal must have structure of whole comprehended in itself" (III
130, 167); degeneration: "as Larva may be more perfect … than [adult]
parent, so may species retrograde" (III 57); adaptation: "if animals
became adapted to every minute change, they would not be fitted to the slow
great changes really in progress" (III 167); instinct: "the simplest
transmission is direct instinct & afterwards enlarged powers to meet with
contingency" (III 118); man: "comparison of man with expression of monkey
when offended, who loves who fears who is curious" (III 22), and the
similarity of the sexual impulse in female animals and in women (III 99, 139).
o
Almost prophetic is Darwin's search for material
on which to carry out researches in experimental embryology: "cannot I
find some animal with definite life and split it, and see whether it retains
same length of life" (III 165). It was nearly a century before Driesch and
Spemann showed how this could be done.
o
There is something scientifically heroic in Darwin's
wondering whether a man's amputated arm could not regenerate a man, if it could
be kept alive in a form of tissue-culture (III 131).
Nb e
·
Nada
mto aproveitável devido ao erro quanto a data de leitura d emalthus. Leva a uma
interpretação equivocada por parte de de beer.
·
Aqui
darwin medita sobre extinção e variação a luz de Malthus e elabora claramente o
paralelo entre seleção artificial e natural 153-4
·
Ns,
guerra natural, é aplicada ao homem aqui tbm
e moral é resultante do processo aplicado aos insintos 154
·
Fortuito
ao invés de design 154
·
Discutindo
a tendência a progressão darwin é um proto ecólogo
o
"The enormous number of animals in the
world depends of their varied structure and complexity. — hence as the forms
became complicated, they opened fresh means of adding to their complexity"
(IV 95). Here Darwin shows that he has realized the part which organisms
themselves play in the complex of factors which make up the environment of
other organisms. He continues: "but yet there is no necessary tendency in
the simple animals to become complicated although all perhaps will have done so
from the new relations caused by the advancing complexity of others. — It may
be said, why should there not be at any time as many species tending to
dis-developement, … my answer is because, if we begin with the simplest forms
& suppose them to have changed, their very changes tend to give rise to
others" (IV 95). Darwin concludes: "I doubt not if the simplest
animals could be destroyed, the more highly organized would soon be
disorganized to fill their places" (IV 96). Improvement, where it takes
place, is not the result of any innate tendency to progression, but to
competition and adaptation." Considering the Kingdom of nature as it now
is, it would not be possible to simplify the organization of the different
beings, … without reducing the number of living beings — but there is the
strongest possible [tendency] to increase them, hence the degree of
developement is either stationary or more probably increases" (IV 97).
154-5
·
mas
o
The ecological web of life is so closely netted
that when transmutation of species results in the origin of a new one, a new
problem is created. "When a species becomes rarer, as it progresses
towards extermination, some of the species must increase in number where then
is the gap for the new one to enter?" (IV 43). The solution to this
problem is closely connected with the principle of divergence1 which Darwin did
not solve until 1852. 155
·
Reflexões
sobre o papel da geração sexual
o
It is curious to find Darwin speaking of final
causes regarding the existence of separate sexes, but the analysis developed in
this and the following two pages of the consequences of their existence, and of
what the result would be if there were only unisexual generation, is remarkably
acute, particularly the realization of the advantages accruing from slow change
in adaptation to the general conditions of the habitat instead of rapid changes
in adaptation to local conditions (IV 48, 49, 50). Variation would be entirely
unconnected in any groups of individuals and change would be unarchic.
Furthermore, physical factors would act on individuals without restraint. The
value of sexual reproduction is therefore that it canalizes variation into a
small number of channels by making physical factors act not on single
individuals but on interbreeding populations, and it slows down change with the
result that changes can "bear relation to the whole changes of country,
& not to the local changes" (IV 50). 155
·
1
padrão da historia dos pensamentos > Reversões de argumento: Paley e as
adapts que provam design; Lyell e o uniformitarismo anti progresso das sps pois
relacionado ao catastrofismo; Lyell e blyth usando NS para provar que sps eram
fixas; e Malthus que acreditava nos checks quantitativos de população sem levar
em conta variação das pops.
·
2 padrão da historia dos pensamentos > “The
second pattern in the history of thought is the realization that knowledge at a
given time may already be sufficient to suggest the correct solution of a problem,
if only the scientist knows where to look.”
Exs, Lyell e problema das sps, Bateson e a síntese evolutiva. A
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