TOURY (1995/2012) - Descriptive Translation Studies - and beyond

 The pivotal position of Descriptive Studies and DTS

• Reflexões sobre o mapa de Holmes. Incluindo sua pouca difusão inicial por não ter sido publicado originalmente em inglês.
• Holmes focava em linguística e empiricismo para os TS.

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• Trads operam mais para o target. As características ali recebem sua importância 6
• Há uma intricada relação entre função, processo e produto

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• Pela visão semiótica as relações dos DTS não podem ser ao contrário. Função tem prioridade lógica (funcionalismo). 7-8
• Since translating, like any other communicational activity, is teleological by its very nature, its systemic position, and that of its future products, should be taken as forming constraints of the highest order. 8
• One of the objectives of descriptive studies is precisely to confront the position a certain translation (or group of translations) has actually assumed in the host culture with the position it was intended to have, and offer explanations for the perceived differences. 8
• TS estuda tudo que uma trad. PODE envolver, ENVOLVE, e o que PROVAVELMENTE envolve. Teoria, DTS e teoria reelaborada 9
• Estudos DTS acumulam dados para as análises teóricas e formulação de leis prováveis (regularidades de comportamento). Esse é o papel fundamental dos DTS. 10 

Setas são bridging rules. 12

I - Translations as facts of a 'target' culture

• Reitera a orientação ao alvo.
• Critica Skopos, especialmente nord. 20
• Existem características relativamente tácitas que tornam uma trad identificável pelo leitor.
• Quando há influencia no original pela trad ela deixa de funcionar como trad [?]. 21
• Trad por interpolação: trad 1 é mediadora. Sua função designada muda. 21
• Mudam a cultura alvo "fechando lacunas":
• ... whenever and wherever such gaps may manifest themselves: either in themselves, or (more often) in view of a corresponding non-gap in another culture that the target culture in question has reasons to look up to and try to exploit for its own needs. Semiotically speaking, translation is thus as good as initiated by the target culture. What this means is that the initial state is one of deficiency in the recipient culture, even if sometimes – e.g., in so-called ‘colonial’ situations – an alleged gap may be pointed out for that culture by a patron of sorts, who also purports to know better how the gap may best be filled. In fact, even here, a more persuasive rationale is not the existence of something in another culture/language in itself, but rather the observation that there is something ‘missing’ in the target culture which should rather be there and which, luckily, already exists elsewhere, preferably in a prestigious culture, and can be taken advantage of. 21
• Contexto é vital para o estudo da trad.
• Sobre desvios:
• The likelihood itself of causing changes in the target culture beyond the mere introduction of an individual text stems from the fact that while translations are indeed intended to cater for needs felt in a target culture, be they real or presumed, they also tend to deviate, on some level, from its sanctioned patterns, not least because of the postulate of retaining ‘invariant under transformation’ certain features of the source text – a defining characteristic of translation, no matter how it is realized. This tendency often renders translations quite distinct from non-translations, and not necessarily as a mere production mishap either. In fact, it is not unusual for an amount of deviance from normal patterns to be regarded not only as justifiable, or even acceptable in translations, but as actually preferable to complete normality, on all levels at once. 22-3
• Servem ainda para identificar ou tentar identificar trads e "proteger" o leitor.
• Sumarizando:
• Translations are facts of target cultures; on occasion facts of a peculiar status, sometimes constituting identifiable (sub)systems of their own, but of the target culture in any event. 24
• Contexto: posição inicial da tradução (contudo deve ser lembrado que ela é dinâmica). Estabelecimento de posições diferenciados para itens de trad. distintas de acordo com o contexto.
• The systemic position most relevant to the kind of questions we wish to pursue is of course the one a translation was designed to occupy when it first came into being. After all, this is the only position that may be claimed to have directed the translation act and the decisions made in the process. 25
• Descobrir a posição, contudo, fica para o fim do estudo. Lembrando que ela é apenas uma hipótese explicativa.
• Definições são inpossíveis pois trad é definida por variabilidade: diferença entre culturas, variação intracultrual, e no tempo. 26
• Essas definições e modelos a priori e foco no dedutivismo enviesam as pesquisas.
• Assim surgem as "assumed translations": all utterances in a [target] culture which are presented or regarded as translations, on any grounds whatever, as well as all phenomena within them and the processes that gave rise to them. 27
• Isso inclui trads não tidas como trads e nã trads tidas como trads assim como as razões para tanto.
• Postulados de tradução. Modos de fazer perguntas.
• Source-text: Trad pressupõe a existencia de um outro texto em outra cultura e lingua com prioridade cronológica e lógica. A suposição que importa, não a existência. 29
• Transfer: transferencia de algumas características, agora compartilhadas 29.
• Relationship: relações entre os textos
• Sumarizando os 3 postulados uma assumed transl é
• any target-culture text for which there are reasons to tentatively posit the existence of another text, in another culture/language, from which it was presumably derived by transfer operations and to which it is now tied by a set of relationships based on shared features, some of which may be regarded – within the culture in question – as necessary and/or sufficient 31
• Equivalencia: "that translation relationship which would have emerged as constituting the norm for the pair of texts under study." 32
• Conceitos importantes no estudo são aceitabilidade e equivalencia.
• Considerações metodologicas sobre descoberta e justificação:

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II - The notion of 'problem' in Translation Studies

• Problema enquanto termo sofre de falta de rigor metodológico.
• Toury identifica pelo menos 3 significados distintos.
• Traduzibilidade. Potencial, não factual. Foca em adequabilidade (melhor escolhar possível). Prospectivo e utópico.
• Retrospectivo. Factual. Ato concreto de tradução.
• Processual. Escolhas provisórias e reflexões. Dinâmico.

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• Várias implicações teóricas abstratas demais pra mim.

EXCURSUS A - Pseudotranslations and their significance

• Estudo sobre as implicações históricas, metodológicas e filosóficas das pseudotrads.
• Expõe o pensamento e hipocrisias sobre trad. 57
• Função e fato são seperados. 58
• Mudança da cultura alvo por pseudotrans. 58-9

III - Being a norm-governed activity

• Acordos, convenções e rotinas comportamentais derivam da vida social por meio de negociações entre os indivíduos.
• Normas

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• Normas envolvem sanções negativas ou positivas. Normas levam a regularidades de comportamento. Assim são perceptíveis como: "explanatory hypotheses for actual behaviour and its perceptible manifestations". 65
  
• Gradação: in terms of their relative potency, constraints on any kind of behaviour can be described along a scalable continuum anchored between two extremes: general, relatively objective rules on the one hand, and idiosyncratic mannerisms on the other. 65
• Variam de regras a idiossincrasias. Todas as amarras ao comportamento são variações de normas.
• "the borderlines between adjacent types of constraints are diffuse" 66
• Também é dinâmica temporalmente.
• Relaciona norma com o habitus de bordieu 68
• Dois princípios que balizam o ato de traduzir (sempre incompatíveis mas sempre presentes em conjunto)
• the production of a text in a particular culture/language which is designed to occupy a certain position, or fill a certain slot, in the host culture, while, at the same time, constituting a representation in that language/culture of a text already existing in some other language, belonging to a different culture and occupying a definable position within it. 69
• Aceitabilidade:
• Adequabilidade
• Eficácia: The joint activity of norms can be seen as a strong factor of efficacy. Thus, were it not for their strong regulative capacity, the tensions between a translation’s adequacy (vis-à-vis the source text) and acceptability (vis-à-vis TL and the target culture) would have had to be resolved each time anew, on a fully ad hoc basis and with no clear yardstick to go by. Indiscriminate, totally free variation would have ensued, which would surely frustrate all attempts to offer a systematic account of a translational event. Everything might have looked equally significant alongside everything else, which reality teaches us it is not. Rather, as any cursory look will ascertain, translation as practised in a particular cultural context does tend to manifest quite a number of regularities, in terms of both criteria and the distance between them. 70
• Regularidades surgem após a análise de material o suficiente.
• Dá algumas considerações metodológicas.
• Várias questões de pesquisa relacionadas a negociação de normas 75
• Existemn normas alternativas competindo Retradução envolve a habilidade de manobrar entre elas. Elas também variam dentro da cultura e no tempo. É comum encontrar a norma principal no centro, normas anteriores em ume stado de sobrevida e rudimentos do que ainda virá na periferia. Isso permite chamar trads. de avant-garde, datadas ou mainstream. São normas competindo entre si.
•  As reality teaches us, it is often people who are in the early phases of their translation career, whether young or not so young, who show the most standard behaviour. Insecure as they understandably are, novice translators would try to avoid taking risks – in other words, play safe – thus performing according to norms which, though they may have become dated, are still considered ‘respectable’. One way of explaining this is to realize that societies would rather mark a deviant performance of a novice as an ‘error’ rather than ‘innovation’: while both terms may easily be applied to one and the same kind of behaviour (or its observable products), the different values assigned to them make all the difference in the data interpretation.77

IV - Studying translational norms

• Norma inicial, escolher entre adequabilidade (estrangeirização) e aceitabilidade (domesticação). 79
• Shifts acontencem mesmo nas mais adequada das trads.
• Norma em nível micro e situacional.
• Normas comportamentais de outros, que não o tradutor, também afetam a trad. 81
• Taxonomia das normas
• Preliminares
• Translation policy: Fatores que influenciam na escolha do que será traduzido
• Directness of transl: limite de tolerância para interpolações.
• Operacionais
• Matriciais: normas do que é permitido fazer com o texto, incluindo a adição de paratextos.
• Texto-linguística: governam a seleção de material lingu´sitico para a trad.
• Equivalência: "any relation which is found to have characterized translation under a specified set of circumstances, which would bring us back to the use we made of Wittgenstein’s “family resemblance”" 85
• Normas são dinamicas, instáveis e socioespecíficas.
• Também possível ser anti-normativo ou não-normativo, mas há consequências. 87
• Textos são produtos dos comportamentos governados por normas enquanto elementos extratrad. são subprodutos, são parciais e enviesados. Pode haver diferenças entre eles por causa disso.
• Consitencia
• Consistency in translational behaviour is thus a graded notion which is neither nil (totally erratic) nor 1 (fully regular). Rather than being presupposed, its extent in any particular case should emerge at the end of a study, as one of its conclusions. 89
• OOutra taxonomia
• Normas básicas (primárias) - mais ou menos obrigatórias.
• Secundárias (tendências) - determinam comportamento favorável. Predominantes em certos locais mas não em outros.
• Comportamento tolerado (permitido)

V - Constituting a method for Descriptive Studies

• Assumed translation pode ser explicita ou não. 93
• Algumas considrações metodológicas de ordem de pesquisa são dadas.
• Comparações. Podem ser entre um par de textos contemporâneos ou não. Ou ainda dois TL de tempos diferentes.
• [IMPORTANTE] a text translated into a certain TL at different times would not really have been translated into one and the same language: even if the norms haven’t changed much, the textual-linguistic wrapping may well have undergone substantial changes. The need for such a modification is all the more urgent the longer the intervals between the translations are, or the quicker the changes in TL and its culture. 96
• Ainda é possível estudar o processo ou ainda estudar um corpus grande.
• ST (há ainda várias outras complicações em definir o ST do que a listada abaixo)
• [EDIÇÕES] However, when devising a research method, provisions should be made for any kind of possible complication that may arise; and there are indeed several cases where a multitude of candidates for a source text may exist. In such cases, any attempt to justify a researcher’s selection of a source text would depend, at least in part, on what the assumed translation itself has exhibited, which would render the establishment of the appropriateness of a source text part of the study itself rather than an auxiliary move. In each of these cases, the reasons why the text actually picked to serve as a source text was deemed preferable to others constitute an interesting issue as such. Uncovering these reasons may even have important implications for the overall account of the relationships between function, process and product, e.g., on the level of preliminary norms. 99
• [SOBRE TRAD INDIRETA] Very often, and for a number of different reasons, the producers of secondhand translations (sometimes the translators themselves, sometimes the publishers) may have failed to make this fact known, especially in cultural contexts where translation is regarded as just one of the ways of generating TL texts, or else where prevailing norms disfavour indirect translation, regarding their use as a sign of weakness. However, assumed translations often betray the fact and literally oblige the conscientious researcher to track down the mediating version and use it as the source. The appropriateness of the source text would thus have been settled in the course of the study again, as one of its very first results. 101
• Considerações metodológicas sobre os pares de segmentos.
• Análise comparativa: comparações são sempre parciais, indiretas e  devem ser relacionáveis a teoria. 106
• Exemplo com metáforas.
• Shifts não são sempre negativo:
• – in a weakened, and hence more realistic version – would encompass all that a translation could have had in common with its source but does not. High value is thereby assigned to failure, which implies – together with its twin-sister, success – that an attempt was in fact made to achieve something which can be defined a priori as a goal and guideline and adopted as a yardstick for quality assessment. 111
• O melhor a se fazer é buscar relações de tradução.
• In establishing translation relationships, which involve not only similarities / differences, but also uni-directionality, the focal concept is that of invariance. 111
• a descriptive study would always proceed from the assumption that equivalence exists between an assumed translation and a text assumed to be its source. What remains to be uncovered is only the way this postulate has been realized in each case, e.g., in terms of the balance between what has been kept invariant and what has undergone transformation. 113
• Fala sobre equivalencia no final

VI - The Coupled pair of replacing + replaced segments

• 
  
• Relevancia:
• The first, and by far most common notion of relevance is source-governed, and its application to translation is prospective. In its most elaborate form the claim is made that it is the position of a feature in the ad hoc network of relationships constituted by the original that determines its relevance to that text, including any would-be translation thereof, irrespective of anything else. However, as already argued, it cannot, and hence should not be assumed that a unit enjoying prospective relevance will have been activated in any single act of translation. It simply cannot be taken for granted that whenever a feature occurs in an SL text, be its position ever so high in the latter’s internal hierarchy, this feature will be picked by translators and retained in the translation. The crux of this point is that the establishment of units for a comparative analysis which focuses on reconstructing rather than implementing translational decision-making cannot proceed on the sole basis of the position and role, let alone on the mere presence of features in SL-texts. 116
• What makes the researcher’s task even more difficult still is the fact that, for any retrospective kind of study, no unit can be postulated for either text – at least as soon as more is ventured than the mere identification of shifts vis-à-vis the ‘adequate’ reconstruction of a source text in a TL. Units which are sure to be Chapter 6. The coupled pair of replacing + replaced segments 117 relevant for the kind of comparative study we have in mind can only be established ad hoc, i.e., as the translation is being mapped onto its assumed SL counterpart. Hence the importance of the second notion of relevance: retrospective. Moreover, if their comparison is to be justifiable, units cannot be established for the two texts in isolation. Rather, segments of both should be defined simultaneously, determining each other, so to speak. 116-7
• Permite reconstrução do ato. 124
• Bi-texto 124-5

VII - An exemplary 'study in Descriptive Studies'

• Estudo de caso com sinônimos e binômios.
• Neste caso cita repetição semântica, estrutura cmobinatória, redistribuição de informação, intensificação, redundância, elevação estilística e unificação de estilo como alguns shifts.137

VIII - Between 'Golden Poems' and Shakespearean sonnets

• Estudo de caso com as trads de Shakespeare para o hebreu.

IX - A lesson from indirect translation

• Ver Kittel 1991.
• Sobre trad indireta
• From the point of view of dts this would mean that second-hand translation is not some kind of an aberration, as has long been the prevailing attitude. What such an approach reflects is a fallacious projection of a current norm, ascribing uppermost value to the original text, onto the plane of theoretical premises. What mediated translation should be taken to be is a syndromic basis for descriptiveexplanatory­ studies – a configuration of interrelated symptoms which should be laid bare if that kind of behaviour is to be understood rather than merely shunned. 161
• Tolerancia a trad indireta é dependente da demanda de importação daquele elemento cultural sendo traduzido. 165
• Podem afetar a evolução da literatura nacional. 170
• Conclusão
• Even in these two sectors [children’s literature and certain sections of popular writing], however, the share of indirect translations is not only far from striking, but is constantly on the decline, despite a considerable increase in the translation of German literature into Hebrew over the last twenty-odd years, and despite the constant shortage of competent translators from that language – another verification of the claim that indirect translation is not an automatic function of the lack of mastery of the source language, and vice versa. Indeed, had the concept of translation, and with it the overall tolerance of second-hand translation, undergone no change, the situation in the 1970s might well have been a perfect mirror-image of the one which prevailed 200 years earlier. Paradoxically, because of that change of concept, which also resulted in recourse to short and/or low-rank textual-linguistic entities as translation units, those second-hand translations which did occur in spite of the growing intolerance of them have become much easier to pin down, and the mediating languages and texts simpler to identify. 178

X - Literary organization and translation strategies

• Estudo de caso.
• Resultados
• a. decisions made by an individual while s/he is translating a single text are far from erratic. Rather, even though by no means all-embracing, they tend to be highly patterned; 
• b. the observed regularities of behaviour are attributable to some governing principles; 
• c. the strongest of these principles originate in the target system, the one where – semiotically speaking – the translation event is initiated and whose needs it is designed to satisfy; and, finally, 
• d. those principles, and hence the behaviour induced by them, reflect an underlying network of relationships which, in our case, constitute a particular realization of the concept of literature and define translation as part of it; in other words, the claim is that – even though seemingly always possible – any other translational strategy would have been way out of line, and hence much more surprising. 179
• A clear element of mediation was thus found to have been involved in the process, even though on the textual-linguistic level it was definitely a ‘first-hand’ translation: the German source text was sifted, so to speak, through the model of the Russian anecdote, resulting in a ‘Russian’ text in the Hebrew language. 189
• Aceitabilidade alcançada com a importação do modelo russo e modificações a nível linguístico. 191
• Traduzir é escolhar, mas nem todas as opções estão sempre disponíveis. 195

Excursus B - 'Translation of Literary' vs 'Literary Translation'

• Faz um sumário do que foi visto até aqui 197-9.
• Target-oriented. Trad supre necessidades da cultura alvo. Introduz uma versão de algo que já existia em outra cultura. A trad mantém os aspectos 'invariantes', mas também se ajusta ao papel. Trads, mesmo retrads, são sempre inéditas.
• Não só o texto, como modelos (conjuntos de regras para produção de textos de um gênero recohecido pela cultura) e modos de uso de linguagem podem ser importados.A importação é "a function of what that culture is willing (or allowed) to accept vs. what it feels obliged to submit to modification, sometimes so much as totally reject."
• Dá um exemplo de trad de poesia e as adaptações estilísticas que podem ocorrer.
• Dois sentidos para tradução literária:
• A trad de textos considerados litrário na cultura fonte, ou
• A trad de qualquer texto de modo que o produto seja considerado literário pela cultura alvo.
• O texto pode ser rejeitado por ser muito domesticado ou estrangeirizado.
• Há um descolamento da função do texto em alguns casos.
• As coisas não são literárias, mas são vistas como literárias. É um status, não uma característica;
• Elabora uma gradação de trad 202
• trad lingusiticamernte motivada. Qlqr trad cujo produto que adere as regras de linguagem da cultura alvo mesmo que o original não se adeque a isso
• modo de trad textualmente dominado: segue as concções da cultua alvo mesmo que não siga um modelo literária dela
• trad literária: scompanha as exigencias literária até certa medidada e com certos custos
• Assim
• Subjugation to target literary models and norms may thus involve the suppression of some of the source-text features, on occasion even those that marked it as ‘literary’, or as a proper representative of a specific literary model, in the first place .... It may also entail the reshuffling of certain features, not to mention the addition of new ones in an attempt to enhance the acceptability of the translation as a target literary text, or even as a target literary text of a particular type. As the Schlaraffenland example has revealed, the added features may easily occupy central positions within the translation (when looked upon as a text in its own right). They may even count among the markers of the translation’s own literariness, despite their having had no basis in the original.203
• Toury não se preocupa com a recepção ou aceitação porque isso é muito finalista. Foca no processo em busca de enteder as suposições e expectivas, a aceitabilidade. 203-4

XI - Studying interim solutions

• Capítulo de considerações metodológicas quanto ao uso de manuscritos de trads.

XII - A translation comes into being

• Estudo de caso de manuscrito de tradução.
• É possível ver o processo de sedimentação das escolhas dentro das amarras presentes.

XIII - Translation-specific lexical items and their lexicographical treatment

• Formas e estruturas linguísticas incomuns na TL são comuns em trads. Isso ocorre pois há um invariane (postulado do relacionamento) 242-3
• Tradutorês contudo pode virar um padrão.
• Há novas combinações de palavras, mas também a cunhagem de novas palavras. 243-4
• Then again, lexical items occurring in translations, which have a place in the TL general lexicon, may often be shown – even by simply referring them to their immediate co-text or to a possible external context – not to have been used exactly in their habitual functions, semantic, stylistic and/or pragmatic. 244
• Várias considerações sobre lexigrafia e dicionarização de termos traduzidos.

XIV - Experimentation in Translation Studies

• Testes empíricos: cloze tests para readability; questionários para aceitabilidade
• Testes para o processo foram pensados mas raramente aplicados até os TAPs. Toury não acredita em um modelo de processo.

EXCURSUS C - A bilingual speaker becomes a translator

• .A prerequisite for becoming a socio-culturally significant translator is gaining recognition in this capacity. Thus, the identity of a person as a translator is granted rather than taken, which also means that it should first be earned. The implication is clear: a central part of the process of becoming recognized as a translator consists in the acquisition of the norms favoured by the culture that would be granting that status. The crucial question is, of course, how the transition from having a measure of bilingualism (a minimum requirement) to being a fully-fledged translator comes about, first and foremost in a ‘natural’ setting, that is, outside of the schooling system. 277
• Natural translation ou Native translatior - trad enquanto habilidade humana. Sem treinamento.
• Modelo Harris-Sherwood de 3 passos de desenvolvimento do native translator: pretranslation > autotranslation > transduction 279
• O modelo é baseado em uma suposição de que a tradução é inata. Toury enfatiza a natureza adquirida.
• Também critica os dados obtidos 289-90
• Conclui que há uma mistura entre nature e nurture.285
• Em treinamento é necessário desaprender certas coisas para adquirir as rotinas ensinadas 291.
• Não há absolutos em tradução. Portanto ela não deve ser ensianda assim.

Beyond Descriptive Studies

• Listas de possibilidades, diretivas não são leis.
• As eis de tradução são condicionais probabilísticas. Hipóteses interconectadas desta forma poderiam gerar previsões.
• Dá dois exemplos de leis:
• Lei de padronização crescente: "in translation, source-text textemes tend to be converted into target-language (or target-culture) repertoremes." 303 ou "in translation, textual relations obtaining in the original are often modified, sometimes to the point of being totally ignored, in favour of [more] habitual options offered by a target repertoire." 304 ou "in translation, items tend to be selected on a level which is lowerthan the one where textual relations have been established in the source text." 305
• he rationale underlying this formulation is simple enough. In every community, phenomena of various types, linguistic and non-linguistic alike, which have semiotic value for its members, undergo processes of codification. Sets of codified items form repertoires, i.e., aggregates governed by systemic relations, which determine the relative availability of items pertaining to such an aggregate for any particular use within the culture. A repertoire may also be accounted­ for as the range of choices which makes cultural functions realizable through real products and practices (see e.g. Even-Zohar 1990: 40–43). Any sign which forms part of a repertoire, irrespective of rank and scope, is definable as a repertoreme. 303-4
• Quando no texto, as relações práticas o tornam um texteme.
• Lei de interferência: "in translation, phenomena pertaining to the make-up of the source text tend to force themselves on the translators and be transferred to the target text"  310
• Podemser transfer negativos ou positivos
• Comunidades diferem quanto a tolerância ou resistência a interferência, especialmente quando é negativa. 313
• tolerance of interference – and hence the endurance of its manifestations – tends to increase when translation is carried out from a ‘major’ or highly prestigious language/culture, especially if the target language/culture is ‘minor’, or ‘weak’ in some other sense. 314
• Interf e toler tbm variam nos níveis linguisticos. É possível, portanto, manipular a interferencia de acordo com a estrate´gia escolhida.