VORZIMMER 1972

 

Charles Darwin: The Years of Controversy - The Origin of Species and Itas Critics 1859-82 [link]

Foreword - Walter F. Cannon

• [MKT] An abstract of an essay cai pelo marketing the murray. Condensado,  "not very logical"  mas barato e facil de imprimir xiii
• "Heated arguments can still arise when one scholar considers the first edition as pura Darwin and anothe relies on Darwins's final formulations in the sixth edition" xiii
• Origin mais como retórica do que como prova. Agora justificamos isso, mas na época isso abria espaço para criticas e auto dúvidas xiv

Preface and Introduction

• Darwin falha em convencer os outros sobre a SN [seria esse o eclipse?]. xviii
• Epigrafe de Eisely reclamando das mudanças do Origin 1 [link]

1 - The Darwinian Mechanism

• Em 1856, sobre as primeiras intenções de publicação depois abandonadas em nome de um trabalho maior: "This procrastination may well have been due to the fact that darwin was still having difficulty explainign the multiple divergence of species from common stock" 5
• Origin como uma introdução. A partir de 1859 não teorizaria mais sozinho 5
• Visão limtada e individual da variação, na primeira edição é totalmente gradual e só precisa ser mínima para ter efeito. 10
• Importante achar causa. Dizer que é aleatório não era científico. 11
• Primeira causa encontrada na domesticação são as condições de vida: 1) direct effect of conditions of life; 2) indirect; 3) habit, use, and disuse; 4) correlation of growth; 5) compensation. No Origin eles eram atenuados. Reconheceu que essas causas não explicavam tudo, mas que a acumulação das variações só poderia ser explicada por SN. A partir de 1862, reconheceria explicitamente 1 e 2 como fatores primários e os outros como secundários 12-4
• Darwin's inadvertent lumping together of all these causal factors in the first Origin was to result in considerable future difficulty. His shortsightedness in not seeing that some of these factors (the secondary) could do more than merely supply slight modifications was also to prevent him from seeing the internal difficulties he had unwittingly included in the first Origin. Darwin saw these causes (as in Figure 1.1) as merely providing simple variation to feed into the mechanism of natural selection. It was as if nature, through these particular causes, delivered up individual variation to yet another natural process by which the variants were made the basis for greater change-the basis of new populations, races, varieties, and ultimately species and beyond. In Darwin's view the compounding of (initial) varia- tion into a distinct divergence from specific type was achieved by a quite different and independent agent.°
• "My conclusion is that external conditions do extremely little, except in causingmere variability. This mere variability (causing the child not closely to resemble its parent) I look at as very different from the formation of a marked variety or new species. (No doubt the variability is governed by laws, some of which I am en-deavouring very obscurely to trace.) The formation of a strong variety or species I look at as almost wholly due to the selection of what may be incorrectly called chance variations or vari-ability.*? This was in November 1856, and in the period before [1856] 14-5
• None of these were original with Darwin nor were they Original in the sources from which he derived them. 39

• Mudança só ocorre com a junção da variação, replicação (vistas como fenomenos separados) e SN. 17
• Contudo 
• as a result of his investigations into the causes of variation were to have the greatest effect in undermining his own idea of natural selection. When he recognized so many ex- ternal factors as producing permanent inheritable effects, he opened a veritable Pandora's box of chimeras, most of which he was not to face until long after the Origin's appearance-all this despite his avowal: "Over all these causes I am convinced that the accumulative action of Selection is by far the predominant Power." »** Nevertheless, the other causes were there, and after 1859 it was to be a different story. The increases in size and number of page changes that would take place in the Origin of Species between 1859 and 1872 give some indication of what happened. Nearly every important change bearing on natural selection or its foundations was to arise out of criticisms point- ing to weaknesses originating in the first edition. The story of Darwin's handling of his theory of natural selection after 1859 is one of documented qualification and nagging doubt. 20

2 - The Study of inheritance

• dois períodos sobre herança. 1837-1862 (incorporação de conhecimento dos breeders e outros) e 1862-1865 (desenvolvimento da pangenese) 22
• Conclusões sobre herança no Variation 27-8
• power of transmitting it to crossed offspring." He saw that the inheritability of a character was a different matter from its actual, effective transmission. For, as he himself had re- vealed,* an inheritable character was, in certain cases, not transmitted at all. Thus it would first be necessary to ascer- tain whether a particular character or variation was inheritable. Here, in the form of an axiom, Darwin offered a single answer: ... "We are led to look at inheritance as the rule, and non- inheritance as the anomaly." This, he felt, applied to new variations as well as to existing features. He noted "how strongly new characters of the most diversified nature, whether normal or abnormal, injurious or beneficial, whether affecting organs of the highest or most trifling importance, are in- herited."
•  If inheritance was the rule, Darwin speculated about the cause of its infrequent alternative, non-inheritance: 
• A large number of cases of non-inheritance are intelligible on the principle, that a strong tendency to inheritance does exist, but that it is overborn by hostile or unfavourable conditions of life. . . . Many cases of non-inheritance apparently result from the conditions of life continually inducing fresh variability.? 
• For purely a priori reasons Darwin believed that the funda-mental principle of inheritance was not unlike the first New- tonian law: that a character, once heritable, continues to be inherited (exactly) through an infinitude of succeeding gen- erations, unless acted upon by some external force. But, as was true of the Newtonian laws, this described an ideal situa- tion, whereas in nature there were always external influences that could modify such a situation. The question of trans- missibility came first, but after that, duplication would follow on the grounds of this first genetic principle. Non-inheritance, like non-transmissibility, presented no problems; it occurred very rarely and it was "obvious that a variation which is not inherited throws no light on the derivation of species."s Non- duplication was a more important phenomenon; its causes were to exact replication as the forces of friction were to Newton's first law. A change in conditions, acting upon the normal genetic motion of constant duplication, caused a change in that action which resulted in variations in character. Without such change, reproduction proceeded normally, and offspring were identical to their parents.
• Offspring ou identica ou mistura. Outros casos eram dominância e reversão. Mudança nas condições de vida afetam o sistema reprodutivo dando origem a diferentes tipos de variações 28-9
• Formas de reversão: caracteres a muito perdidos em hibridos ou não; Prepotency 37
• True variation. Causas. 38-40
• Darwin's recognition of prepotency and reversion as alterna- tives to blending in any single generation, together with his rejection of the effects of both as ultimately transient, left blend- ing still a force whose effects ran counter to selection. His ac- ceptance of such causes of variation as the direct effect of conditions, habit, use, disuse, correlation, and compensation influenced his view of heredity. Variations acquired during the lifetime of an organism seemed to have originated through proc- esses quite independent of those of inheritance. For Darwin looked upon inheritance as the act of transmission, the per- petuation through duplication of whatever had come before. His interest lay, therefore, not so much in the processes of in- heritance as in their resultant products. Even among these, he was concerned only with such as represented true deviations from type, as opposed to those differences which represented merely reversion to former types, predominations of a single type, or varying blends of parental types. In short, his concern was with variations from specific form, not with the differences exhibited between individuals of one generation from those of another. It was these latter dissimilarities that appeared to be more closely associated with the process of inheritance and the factors whose operation modified it. By restricting his interest to true variation he had, in a sense, drawn away from inherit- ance proper. Having shown the normal outcome of inheritance, including the fact that his required type of variation was in- heritable, he went on to construct his own hypothesis (pangene- sis) by which he hoped to account not only for those aspects of genetic phenomena operative in his theory, but for all known genetic phenomena. In adopting this procedure, Darwin was, for the moment, forgetting that blending was a process through which his variations would have to pass. 41 [preludio pro blending, ter Morris 1994 em mente]

3 - Darwin's view on Variation

• Variações. Transmitíveis. Contínuas individuais e saltos.
• ...had tried saltation as a possible source of evolutionary change and had found it wanting. At first Darwin felt that all variation, so long as it was in- heritable, was suitable material for selection and therefore for speciation. He soon came to see the difficulties inherent in the selection of monstrous forms. Apparently inheritability itself was no guarantee that any such variation could be employed for speciation.
• ... Later, after the Origin appeared, he would be pressed by his critics into a greater elaboration of his reasons for rejecting saltations. First, he believed monstrosities (or saltations) were gen- erally sterile. Second, if not sterile, they were usually traumatic in their effects and rarely advantageous. Third, while not un- common to the domestic state, they were extremely rare in nature. Fourth, existing adaptation and organic complexities were not explicable by saltation. Finally, there were no cases in which a monstrosity or saltation appearing in one form re- sembled a normal structure in an allied form. Thus the Origin was written from a firm base of opposition to saltation or any other form of discontinuous variation as suitable material for the natural selection process, but with an equally firm commitment to the natural selection of individual differences. 47
• Critia de Huxley 48 e Harvey 50 e defesa anti-salto de Hooker 51 que convenceu Darwin, mas não o ajudou em seu erro de confundir monstruosidades com saltos 52 Harvey e o salto novamente 61 No evidence disse darwin 63
• Until this time, Darwin had never seen, nor had it ever been pointed out to him, that there was an important distinction to be made regarding saltations. Here, however, was a man who (like Darwin) rejected monstrosities as agents of selectivity, yet at the same time attacked the efficacy of the natural selection process of individual differences. In rejecting monstrosities while nevertheless calling for a form of saltation, Harvey was indicating the role of an intermediate form-something larger than a slight difference, yet not of a monstrous nature. Unfor- tunately, Darwin saw only the difference between "continuous" and "discontinuous" variation and, since Harvey's form was sal- tative nonetheless, he rejected the idea. 64
• Gray cético da acumulação contínua e da descontínua propõe que a natureza da short steps - not infinitely fine gradation 53.
• [RECEP] "The mischief of my abstract" 52
• Agassiz e outros questionam qual a diferença entre variação permanente e passageira. 55-6
• Mudanças na 3ed. para deixar sua posição explicita. Dá três razões contra: esterilidade, complexidade e raridade.
• The third edition abounds with very slight-often single-word - alterations indicating that he was no longer rejecting saltations so exclusively as earlier, but only in their role in speciation. Where he had previously referred to "that old canon, 'Natura non facit saltum, * " he now spoke of it as "that old but somewhat exaggerated canon."'' Darwin also modified his references to individual differences. "Infinitesimally small inherited modifica- tions"-the backbone of his theory-became only "small."" Where he had said: "I believe a large amount of inheritable and diversified variability is favourable, but I believe mere in- dividual differences suffice for the work," he now said: "Mere individual differences probably suffice." Though the change is slight, the further modification in the fifth edition showed the trend of his thought 65
• Problema retorna em 1862 com o Variation.66
• Pouchet 66 ver Desmond and Moore 2009 Em 1866 considera que monstruosidades só poderiam ser mantidas se fossem adaptativas, caso contrário estariam sujeitas a blend. 67

4 - The causes of variability

• 3ed
• From the point of view of his public, this would have been a most appropriate time for Darwin to reconsider some of the problems of the Origin. The critical comment of the past year seemed to cry out for reply.* Yet, for a number of reasons, Darwin refrained from any extended discussion.' In the first place, he felt acutely aware of all the trouble Murray had gone to in bringing out the first two editions. Though comment and criticism were plentiful, sales were nonetheless low. Wishing therefore to spare his friend cost and inconvenience, Darwin limited himself solely to deletions and minor corrections. See- ond, Darwin had been left quite unimpressed by the comments of most of his critics. He felt the majority had made muddled interpretations of his idea and that, consequently, nearly all their comments were worthless. Thus there are few changes of any significance in the third Origin. 72-3 [nota 9 stupid reviewers]
• Só discute as criticas de Bronn. Ressalta quatro pontos: 1) associações de características; 2)existência de caracteres inúteis; 3) mudanças coordenadas; 4) mudança o tempo todo, unidade da espécie.
• Each of Bronn's queries required an explanation involving the cause of variation. Because Darwin had not at this time delved far into either the nature or the causes of variation, he was forced merely to repeat and reemphasize points already made in the first editions of the Origin.
•  In reply to the first two queries, he saw that there was a common explanation: the principle of correlation." Unusual as- sociations of features and the existence of useless variations were seen as the secondary results, the by-products, of correla- tion. Selection had operated on the adaptive changes with which these secondary features were correlatively linked. As selection assured the perpetuation of the former, so it auto- matically entailed the selection of the latter, whether useful or not. 
• As for Bronn's third query, Darwin could see but dimly the possibility of correlation as an explanation. This was primarily because he felt he could account for what appeared to be si- multaneous change by the sequential acquisition of allied changes through the process of natural selection. Besides, too little was known at this time about the dynamic aspects of correlation for Darwin to consider it as an alternative.' 
• Bronn's final objection, wherein he saw that, under the direct action of the conditions of life, all members of the population would become modified, evoked a completely divergent reply: "It is sufficient for us if some few forms at any one time are variable, and few will dispute that this is the case." This point, which, whether intentionally or not, Darwin had overlooked, would be forced to his attention later. 74-5
• Volta para o variation depois. E só cresce. 1 volume como enciclopédia da variação e 2 para discutir variabilidade. Mas Orchids entra na frente de modo que o 2 volume só começou em novembro de 1862 75-6
• little weight on direct actin of the conditions of life. 79 I have for years and years been fighting with myself not to attribute too much to Natural Selection-to attribute something to direct action of conditions; and perhaps I have too much conquered my tendency to lay hardly any stress on conditions of life." 81
• Darwin saw the appar- ently spontaneous variations produced through the reproduc- tive system as one aspect (the indirect effects) of the condi- tions, while the other aspect represented the direct effects. All variations were elicited by some change in conditions; the dif- fculty for him lay in how much to attribute to each. 81
• Em 1962, contudo, começava a dar mais peso para os direct action of condition, mas triste porque it lessnes the gliry of natural selection 82.
• O que bronn não fez pelo entendimento de darwin quanto a correlação, Spencer fez
• On the subject of correlation, Spencer's views considerably extended those of Darwin. Where the latter had, up to that time, viewed correlation primarily as a mysteri- ous cause-and-effect sequence between one variation and another, Spencer had gone deeper and beyond Darwin's empir- ically oriented investigations. By attempting to base the prin- ciples of biology on a physico-chemical foundation, Spencer viewed such phenomena as correlation from a level far below (speaking intra-systemically) that of Darwin. He described correlation and correlative change as the result of the basic organic drive to maintain physiological equilibrium." Darwin's amended view of the principle of correlation, indeed his very method of presentation in the Variation, was directly due to Spencer's influence

93-4

• 89-94 longa mas boa explicação da coisa toda.

5 - Blending Inheritance

• Jenkin como tunring poiint lamarckista de Darwin, mas baseado em muita desinformação 97-8
• Jenkin não foi o primeiro a mostrar pra darwin o problema da blending inheritance, não foi o principal problema, não foi o estopim de uma mudança lamarckista, não foi supresa para darwin e não foi o motivo do surgimento da pangeses 98
• ... There is no "turning point" in Darwin's evolutionary thought. What unrolls before us in the twenty- three years after the Origin is a gradual but progressive modi- fication. [Darwin started to modify the Origin before the first edition had gone on sale. The seeds of nearly all the significant changes can be seen in the first edition] As for Jenkin and the place of his critical attack, this chapter attempts to indicate their importance and to describe from the beginning the place of the concept of blending in- heritance in the development of Darwin's thought.
• Blending já aparecia nos notebooks, no sketch, no essay e no NS antes do Origin com diferentes graus de sofisticação mas ainda sem resolução 101-6
• Não é adereçado diretamnte no origin porque estava implicito 108 Resolução
• First, by having now clearly delimited his meaning of "variation" to exclude anything except "individual differences," he had gained in terms of number and inheritability while eliminating the difficulties which pur- sued the concept of saltations. And second, by describing indivi- dual differences as common to all organisms, Darwin implied that, even excluding the disadvantageous and the merely neutral modifications, there would still remain for selection a number of advantageous variants. Since very few were required, he there- fore felt he had established a justifiable probability (with regard to likelihood of appearance and quantity) for his essential raw material. 109
• Também passa a trabalhar no aspecto negativo da SN. 109-10 e sofisticar o isolamento 111
• Criticos interpretam ausência como omissão. 111 Huxley responde com dominância (prepotencia ou non blending inheritance) e aspectos genéticos (herança da tendença a variar de maneira igual) 112-4
• Resposta a Pouchet somente na 4ed. 114-5
• No variation encontra autores que não dão tanta atenção pra blending e sugerem as reversões 116-20 Pangenese sim lamarckista, ma sem relação temporal com Jenkin pois ela veio antes. 120-1 Jenkin contra diferenças indivudias e saltos. 122
• Alto impacto de Jenkin em Darwin confirmando a não herdabilidade de saltos devido a blending  (ignora que o mesmo se aplica a diferença individual ara Jenkin) 122-4
• As the result of Jenkin's impact, Darwin's view of the selection process in which blending was a necessary contingency showed three main changes: first, his implicit emphasis on isolation as containment, together with an underlining of the power of negative selection; second, his reiterated belief that variant individuals pass on to their offspring the inherited ten- dency to vary again in the same direction; third, his increas- ing attribution of variation to such Lamarckian factors as the direct action of environmental conditions and the inherited effects of habit, use, and disuse. All these were factors to which he had previously paid passing recognition, but which at this time it became necessary to fall back upon with increasing emphasis in order to ensure the necessary conditions for the selective modification whose limitations were becoming more apparent. 
• In emphasizing doubtful genetic beliefs and Lamarckian factors whose role in the evolutionary process he had previously discounted, Darwin effectively opened up a Pandora's box of difficulties the results of which would, at a later date, bring about his total withdrawal from the scene of the debate about evolution. While it would remain for others to force Darwin's theoretical hand, it was Jenkin who, in committing Darwin to the views just described, brought about his inclusion of blend- ing inheritance within his theoretical mechanism. Thus there was in 1867 no turning point, nor even any sense of emergency: it was more as if a door had closed quietly behind Darwin. 126

6 - The limits of variation

• Darwin não mudou sua posição quanto a variação frente aos críticos até a 4ed. Motivando o review de Jenkin. 148
• Reclamações de Jenkin não eram originais 150
• Vorzimmer desconsidera as contribuições de Jenkin. 152
• Darwin não muda muito de ideia 155

7 - The Role of Isolation

166

• Até 1844 falava de uma necessidade de isolamento. No Origin: Isolamento pode ajudar contra o blending com a separação de pequenas populações, pequenas áreas tendem a favorecer as mesmas variações, impede imigrações. Mas Darwin rejetava a necessidade de isolamento dando preferência para tamanho de área pois um maior numero de individuos favorecia o aparecimento de variações, condições variáveis em área grande favorecia variações, favorecia o movimento de novas formas e oferecia mais nichos. 169-170
• Jenkin faz Darwin dar mais atenção a seleção inconsciente e menos a SN positiva. 173 Também: "It was Jenkin's commentary that extra ted for the first time from Darwin an admission that it was necessary to think in terms of "the preservation during many generations of a large number of [variant) individuals and the destruction of a still larger number lof normal forms]." 178
• Moritz Wagner pelo isolamento 178 Darwin cede um pouco, mas não muito 181, 183
• Conclusão
• It does, at first, seem strange that the Darwin of the Galapa- gos Archipelago should feel so strongly about demonstrating speciation by natural selection, specifically excluding isolation as a vital condition. In fact, the difficulties which stemmed from this determination may make it appear that Darwin had forgotten the very context in which he had first glimpsed the selective means to evolution. In not accepting isolation as a necessary con- dition, Darwin took a middle ground between ecological separa- tion and blending selection as alternative means to achieve spe- ciation, but without citing either. Jenkin's criticism of 1867 must have convinced him that blending was better incorporated within his theoretical process than-as Jenkin had so forcefully put it-as "an insurmountable obstacle to the formation of new varieties." Yet, to such later critics as Wagner, Darwin's reliance on modifi- cation with blending seemed only to underline the need for some form of isolation.
• ...
• In employing against Darwin both the swamping argument and the explanatory failures of the theory regarding multiple di- vergences, distribution, and transitional forms, Wagner hit upon the theory's greatest weaknesses." Only the isolation implied in his own "separation-migration" theory, Wagner felt, could ac- count for these most important phenomena. Darwin, however, rightly expressed astonishment at Wagner's intimations that he had neglected isolation. He had, he felt, shown that it was not a condition for speciation, while at the same time it would pro- vide an extremely useful situation not only for speciation, but (as he later recognized) for divergence and distribution as well. 
• To conclude, Darwin's position concerning the importance of isolation changed little from 1859 on. Although he rejected isola- tion completely as a necessary condition for the basic (ortho- selective) form of speciation that formed the core of his work, nevertheless he used the concept throughout without recognizing it for what it was. Darwin led us to believe that the multiple divergence and distribution of species can be accounted for by means of the fortuitous instances of natural geographical and spatial isolation that occur from time to time. 184-5

8 - Darwin and Wallace

• Wallace and pure darwinism e questão das eds 187
• História da SS para Darwin 188-9 
• "In short, whereas the process of natural selection was the basis for survival of the species, sexual selection was the basis for the goal of fertilization and reproduction of the individual." 189-90
• Wallace como antecipador 191
• Sexual selection as the ,aoms agent in forming the races of man 192
• Briga pela prioridade da camuflagem 193-5
• Wallace não gostava da SS devido ao papel ativo de escolha dos indivíduos. Preferia ficar na SN da camuflagem 196-7
• Wallace sobre cor
• (1) Colour is ever varying and is generally transmitted to both sexes. 
• (2) It protects, by simple concealment by mimicry by making conspicuous. 
• (3) It is also useful sexually, to the female by attracting the male and vice versa. (4) It is therefore selected and accumulated. 
• (5) Owing to the special structures, functions and habits of the female sex, this often requires more protection than the male and is also more important in the preservation of the offspring. Protection by colour is therefore often acquired by this sex alone. 
• (6) This occurs by subduing or checking the colour as acquired by the male or by the accumulation of en- tirely distinct colours or markings. 200
• Darwin responde que concorda com tudo, mas que o principal seria SS e não proteção. 200-1
• Conclusão
• Wallace never succeeded in convincing Darwin any more than he had up to 1871 and the subject was rarely even discussed after that. Darwin's theory of sexual selection, it should be noted, is not very important by itself. Its importance in Darwin's thought on evolution lies in two facts. First, it was a sort of test case, being, after all, a process of modification other than that of natural selec- tion, and one whose wide range of application was described by Darwin himself. While it appeared to Darwin to fill the important explanatory gaps left by the theory of natural selection, it would nevertheless appear to some critics as a well-documented admis- sion that the process of natural selection was merely one of a large number of processes at work in nature-a view certainly not in keeping with Darwin's original thesis on natural selection. Second, and not unrelated, is the point that in sexual selection it was the organisms themselves that were the agents of selection-just as was the case in the inherited effects of habit, use, and disuse, in which Darwin also came increasingly to believe. As such, it was looked upon by many later critics as implying that the species (or form) was the agent of its own evolution-another problem that would plague Darwin in the years that followed. 202-3
• Esterilidade em Darwin
• Nothing further was mentioned until early 1868 when the Variation appeared. Darwin's views remained unchanged: the selective acquisition of sterility, while a desirable process (par- ticularly now with blending recognized as such an overwhelming force against individual variation), remained outside the realm of selection. Darwin felt that too much stress had been laid on sterility. Even among recognized species it was not, after all, a universal attribute. Besides, he had recognized other factors preventing the crossing of different forms, stating " ... that some domestic races are led by different habits of life to keep to a certain extent separate, and that others prefer coupling with their own kind, in the same manner as species in a state of nature, though in a much less degree." 206
• One can see that the fundamental difference between Darwin and Wallace lay in the fact that the former based his utilitarian principle of selection on the basis of the individual organism, while the latter thought in terms of the species. Darwin believed that in nature it is only the individual which exists as a real entity. He could not see how the inability to breed properly, to breed in lesser numbers, or to yield abnormal offspring could be selected as advantageous to any organism. Thus the problem revolved 207
• CHauncey Wright e Mivart 210
• Conclusão
• Strangely enough, in spite of all the modifications in his evolutionary thought after 1859, Darwin never accepted a suggestion resulting in any significant change in his theory from his personal friends of the "inner circle" of Darwinians. Instead, he made his greatest revision under the influence of his severest critics (Agassiz, Pouchet, Jenkin, and Mivart ). 211

9 - The Origins of Useless Characters

• Thus, both Weismann and Hooker contributed to Darwin's only slightly altered view as expressed in the new edition: Hooker, by suggesting that inconsequential characters could, once having arisen, be perpetuated purely by way of general inheritance (rather than for their selective value); and Weismann, by serving to confirm the possibility that many apparently useless variations arise through the interaction of environment and individual con- stitution. 219
• Shift para os processos secundários em detrimento da SN de novo 220
• The overall impression generated from the first Origin is that the process of natural selection is the cause of speciation. The fact remains, however, that Darwin had said at the very outset that "natural selection has been the main but not exclusive means of modification," as Darwin himself was compelled to point out to his crities in 1872. Yet this is not the impression one generally gets from reading the first edition. Since the hypothesis of natural selection was based on the selective accumulation of variations on the basis of utility, and since Darwin himself put it so firmly "every detail of structure in every living creature" either was or is "of special use," it hardly seems as if he was entertaining any other possibility at the time. Later critics were therefore somewhat justi- fied in rebutting him on this ground-particularly as he had so expanded the powers and roles of these secondary causes of modification. 
• Much, if not the greatest part, of the misunderstandings on this subject arose out of Darwin's failure to distinguish between the causes effecting primary, individual variation and those resulting in speciation. By including the two under the same general head of "causes of modification," the more phenomena that could be attributed to primary variation, the fewer could be attributed to selection. And indeed this was the case, because Darwin failed to see even a functional distinction between the two. As a conse- quence, application of the principle of natural selection was not only becoming more and more limited (to cases of useful char- acters alone) but, more important, it was becoming more apparent to Darwin's contemporaries that the other causes of modification recognized by Darwin were capable of assuming roles in the process of evolutionary modification that had previously been left to natural selection. The significance of the sum total of the changes made by Darwin up to and including the fifth edition was that they weakened his theoretical superstructure, principally because of his acceptance of certain views whose implications removed much of the power of modification through the natural selection process. 220-1
• Eds
• The second edition, with its seant corrections, is hardly more than a reprint of the first. The third and fourth editions are noteworthy mainly insofar as they are evidence of Darwin's in- tent to use successive editions as vehicles for revisions in his own views. They do, as we have already seen, include a number of significant replies ( cf. Bronn, Pouchet ), but there is no attempt at a general, full-scale revision of the foundations of the Darwin theory. And this was precisely the point that lay at the basis of all his post-1859 difficulties: while he had been repeatedly alter- ing many of his theoretical premises, he never undertook to revise or rewrite his theory in its entirety-from start to finish. Since each slight change in some lower, basic principle would affect his theory as a whole, critics would be free to fire away at the mass of contradictions and incongruities contained in it until such time as the entire work was rendered internally consistent. The fact that the Origin increased in size with each new edition, and that in the fifth edition alone nearly half of all the sentences had been either altered or deleted, signifies the structural weakness that had aflicted the Origin of Species. 222
• ....
• In order to show how speciation could be brought about through the process of natural selection, it was essential for Dar- win to treat in some detail the several conditions making its opera- tion possible. In so doing, he was led to investigate several sub- sidiary phenomena such as the size of variations, the causes of variations, the limits of variation, the laws of genetic transmission, the role of isolation, and secondary sexual characters. It was not until the years following 1859, when treating these subjects in some detail, that Darwin began to modify his original views. Since these were not only related to each other but related to the theory as a whole, the changes in them necessarily involved concomitant implications for the theory. That Darwin was well aware of most of these is shown by the further changes he found it necessary to make to achieve some degree of consistency among them. In this way, as he came to understand the great effects of blending, so he went on to modify his earlier views to allow for (1) a greater number of variations; (2) the tendency to con- tinued variation in the same direction; and (3) the containment necessary for his process of "unconscious selection." There were two main reasons why he did not see the implications of these changes on the selective process. First, he did not see these sev- eral processes (which he recognized as leading to non-selective modifications) as exclusive to the process of natural selection, but as supportive of and subsidiary to it. That is to say, the fact that there were other recognized causes at work in no way less- ened the importance of natural selection as the major cause of speciation. And, in the second place, these subsidiary factors were looked upon as the very conditions that made natural se- lection capable of achieving speciation. 
• The publication of the fifth edition in July 1869 saw the Origin so expanded, revised, and modified throughout as to result in a theory overburdened with inconsistencies and ambiguities. In- deed it provided a ripe target for a discerning critical eye. And, in fact, the years following 1869 were to see the foundations of the theory of natural selection under a critical fire so intense and so well directed at the weakest points that Darwin himself came to believe his theory might not survive. 223-4
• Principais mod da 5ed: only small differences for variation; herança de tendência de variação; sem enfase no isolamento; enfase em effects of environment e herança de caracteres adquiridos; variation without segregation by unconscious selection;  não distingue as causas de variação individual. e de especiação. 222-3

10 - The Crucial Years: Controversy with Mivart

• Origin precisava de consistência, não de mais expansões e adhocs 225
• Critica de Barzun 226

• Mivart concordava com tudo até a inclusão do homem por Huxley em 1863. 227
• Origin enfraquecido pelas críticas 228
• Genesis muito virulento e enviesado mas também muito organizado e convincente 229
• Admitia a evolução das espécies e do homem e a SN até certo ponto, mas colocou a SN como muito problemática em 10 pontos
• Variações minimas não seriam úteis
• Se úteis seriam tão pouco que não seria selecionáveis.
• Apoiava saltos
• Registro fóssil ruim
• Indiviudal differences nem sempre são herdáveis
• Limite da variação
• Variação dentro de um tipo 230-1
• Eds
• The several important modifications in his theory made by Darwin from 1859 to 1869 were largely obscured in their sig- nificance by the fact that they remained incorporated within the original work. By persistently altering the basic structure of the first Origin, rather than writing up afresh his much-altered views, Darwin made it difficult to gauge the full extent of his changes and the implications they held for the theory as a whole. The changes which signaled a shift in emphasis toward processes of modification other than natural selection appeared alongside his original statements, implying the latter's apparent all-sufficiency. Because these statements were embedded in the earlier text which had by then come to include an even greater amount of additional material, their real significance for the theory could be seen only by such well-trained eyes as Mivart's.
• Thus it was in the Descent, whose very subject matter made it a distinctly separate work, that Darwin's later views could be clearly seen. In this work Darwin had to apply all the factors mentioned in the Origin to one particular organic subject, man. 233-4
• Admissão de culpa no Descent. 234
• Descent como repositório das fraquezas do Origin. More and more lamarck says Himmelfarb 235-8
• Not only this tell but half the sotry - it givesa misleading representation. As was pointed out in the first chapter, Darwin, while rejecting Lamarck's notion of a sentiment interieu, nevertheless accepted two widely hel axioms which had also  formed part of the Lamarckian mechanism: the inherited effects of habit, use, and disuse. On one page alone in the first Origi he citede what he felt were instances of the latter three. Thus he had consitently even in his earliest writigins, given an interpretation based on the inheriancve of acquired characters to certain classes of facts. What does seem strange in tyhe exmaples on finds in the Descent is that i was here tha Darwin began for the first time to assign such causes (the lmits of wich he had previously restricted to the productuin of mere variationa lone) to cases of modification, where he had before applied rthe theory of nautal selection exclusivley. It can be reasobaly belived that this weas the result of a loical extrapolaion of these processes into the domain of nautral selectgion - and it illustrates clearly the fact that Darwin was yeilding to critical ressure to recognize such causes, while he was at the same time unale to distinguish where one mechanims came into play and where another left off. Though Darwin enerally gave precedence to selectino, Mivart saw little reason why the the rfactors could not-by themselves-apply to all cases.
• ...
• In summing up Darwin's reemphasized employment of onselective factors in the evolutionary process, we can say that Darwin nearly always had an important and pressing reason fdor adpoting them. With the effects of conditions were involved the expalntory diffuculties presente dby usseless and or pureley ornamentl (non-sexual) strucutres. With the effects of habti, use and disuse were concerned the problems attached to explaining the first stages of inciipent strucutres, the presence of vestigual organs and the phenomen of instinct. Threre is also som indication that he saw in the action of use a menas of achivin withn a shorter period of time, th eincreased development of certain incipient structures to the point at which their utilituy wourld render them objetcs of sleeciton. Swamping-through-belnding inheritance had also led to a difficulty which could be circumvented by invlking non-slective factors. For, whatever conditions provked new habtis or further uses, they wouyld act as stimulus to not one, but a majoritu of the mebros of the population. Thus, not only would the swamping of the vew variant be elimianted, but at the same time the modification would appeart almost simultanoeusly throughout the population (and, like the direct actyion of conditions, eithn a reasonably short preiod of time). Thus, considerations of the probhlems presente by swmaping and shorter time intervals asl consitbute dot Darin's reemphasiis of such factors. 238-9
• Evolução em 1871 esquematizada 240-2
• Mivart faz uso dos hedgings, contradições  e mudanças de opinião de Darwin 243
• Wright como motivador de animosidade 244-5 Briga com Huxley 245-6
• 6ed
• The significance of the sixth Origin lies in the fact that it involved no distinctly new changes in Darwin's thought. There were, however, noticeable differences in this edition, chief among them a subtle change in tone. By substituting for his previous rash of qualifying adjectives more definite modifiers, or in dropping them completely, Darwin transformed statements previously appearing as mere speculation into firm commit- ments of belief. Thus, much of the hesitancy and hedging which had characterized the previous edition was gone, replaced by a more resolved (though still often inconsistent) exposition of his mechanism of evolution. In this, Darwin's last stand against his critics, one senses his attitude of full commitment to his original hypothesis as mixed with a slight but definite aura of resignation. Containing as it did Darwin's final and maximal concessions, this edition was to mark the end of his public appearances on behalf of his theory. 246-7
• Principais mudanças: herança e variação e processos de modificação não seletivos. 247
• Prego no caixão da SN 248-9
• Mivart continua espezinhando e Wright responde novamente 249-50
• Nota quanto a ediçãode 1876 250
• Retirment, "our work" < reception 251

11 - The Final Years: Darwin's Retirement

• Citação da autobiografia sobre hipóteses modificadas 253
• Modificações na pangenese em 1875 256
• Citação de Darwin sobre a coisa toda 
• With respect to new variations being obliterated by crossing, I have insisted on the improbability of such well-marked variations as that of the ancon sheep bieng preserved under nature. I cannot doubt tha tthe process of sleection under nautre is the same as that called by me "unconscious selection" when the more or less best fitted are reserved, or the more or less ill fitted are destroyed ... By the eay, he [Mivart] says I rest exclusively on natural selectgion; whereas no one else as far as I know has made so many observations on the effects of use and disuse. Nor do I deny the direct effect of external conditions, tho I probably underrated their power in the earlier edirtions of the Origin. 264
• Eclipse of Darwinismn 267

Epilogo

• "Few things are more difficult to write thant that of an idea" 269
• textual revolution 270 [menciona isso antes]
• Breve recap 270-1
• "Such a man never accepts defeat; he is therefore never defeated" 271